This treatise on Microscopy is divided into several sections that are available through the links displayed immediately to the left (in the darker boxes) and below. In order to print the entire document, you must download each link independently, send the file to your printer, and put the results together.

In the Bibliography, we have included links to other works on optical microscopy and our section on Web Resources contains links to other microscopy sites on the Internet. This material is targeted for educational purposes only, and is not available to be posted on remote websites (either commercial or educational) or distributed in any electronic format.

Frequently Asked Questions - Mortimer Abramowitz, senior microscopist at Olympus America, Inc., answers the 50 most commonly asked questions about microscopy and photomicrography.

Physics of Light and Color - Visible light represents only a small portion of the entire electromagnetic spectrum of radiation that extends from high-frequency gamma rays through X-rays, ultraviolet light, infrared radiation and microwaves to very low frequency long-wavelength radio waves. The complex phenomenon of visible light is classically discussed in terms of rays and wavefronts. Starting with the nature of electromagnetic radiation, a wide variety of topics are covered in this section, including refraction, reflection, diffraction, interference, birefringence, polarization, primary colors, human vision, mirrors, prisms, beamsplitters, laser systems, geometrical optics, filtration, color temperature, and the speed of light.

Anatomy of the Microscope - A thorough discussion of the elements that comprise modern microscopes and theories behind important concepts such as magnification, image formation, Köhler illumination, optical aberrations, immersion media, and light sources, among others.

Specialized Microscopy Techniques - More advanced topics in microscopy are covered in this section, including contrast enhancement, fluorescence microscopy, differential interference contrast, phase contrast and other optical techniques used in microscopy.

Digital Imaging in Optical Microscopy - Digitization of a video or electronic image captured through an optical microscope results in a dramatic increase in the ability to enhance features, extract information, or modify the image. When compared to the traditional mechanism of image capture, photomicrography on film, digital imaging and post-acquisition processing enables a reversible, essentialy noise-free modification of the image as an ordered matrix of integers rather than a series of analog variations in color and intensity. This section addresses a variety of current topics in image acquistion and processing for optical microscopy.

Photomicrography - The primary medium for photomicrography was film until the past decade when improvements in electronic cameras and computer technology made digital imaging cheaper and easier to use than conventional photography. This section addresses the classical methods of photomicrography on film and includes a comprehensive analysis of the cause and correction of errors and faults in photomicrography.

Virtual Microscopy - Our interactive Java-powered virtual microscopes allow visitors to explore selected samples with their Web browser using a variety of contrast-enhancing techniques. The virtual microscope techniques include differential interference contrast, fluorescence, Rheinberg illumination, and polarized light.

The Olympus MIC-D Digital Microscope - Olympus has thrown the doors open to a new era in optical microscopy education with the introduction of the MIC-D inverted digital microscope. Designed specifically for a wide spectrum of applications ranging from basic classroom instruction to more advanced laboratory analysis, this versatile microscope features a palette of contrast enhancing techniques that rival many research-level instruments.

Java and Flash Tutorial Basics - Interactive Java and Flash tutorials have been developed to help students explore complex concepts in all phases of optical microscopy, the physics of light and color, photomicrography, and digital imaging technology. The tutorials are embedded within web pages that contain accompanying discussions about the subject phenomenon and instructions for use and control of the applets. This section discusses the basics of tutorial navigation and operation.

Optical Microscopy Review - Download our latest review article on optical microscopy. Co-authored by Michael W. Davidson and Mortimer Abramowitz, this article discusses the basics of image formation, objectives, eyepieces, condensers, contrast enhancement, and photomicrography with full-color illustrations. Click on the link to download the document in PDF format (1.75 Mb).

Web Resources - We have reviewed and provided links to over 100 microscopy Websites in our resources section. The sites are arranged according to origin (university or commercial), target audience, and by educational level. Also included are links to glossaries and newsgroups.

Bibliography - All of the reference material used in preparing this primer is cited along with other books about electron and scanning probe microscopy, photomicrography, highly specialized microscopy techniques, and older books dealing with the history of microscopy and microscopy in the early twentieth century.